The Social Significance of Race

The SOCIAL SIGNIFICANCE OF RACE

Racism is a doctrine of superiority  by which one group justifies the dehumanization of others based on their distinctive physical characteristics.

• Is a problem because it is about discriminatory ideas, values and attitudes - interpersonal and social, not scientific.
• Political problem used to mobilize support, demonize opponents and eliminate rivals.

Race and Behavior - to date, no behavioral characteristic is scientifically attributable to one "race".  It all has to do with cultural practices.  High crime rates, alcoholism and drug use among certain groups can be explained by culture rather than biology.  People who are defined by poverty and lack of opportunity tend to abandon traditional paths to success because their way is blocked.

• Scandinavians - "cold"
• Americans - "rude"
• Yanomami Indians - "fierce" - Brazil and Venzuelan Native Rain Forest tribes

I'm sure you can think of other stereotypes of cultures and groups.  Try the sports quiz.

Race and Intelligence - There is no connection between race and intelligence.
What is meant by intelligence?  How do you measure it?  Are IQ tests flawed?  In what way?  Are there different types of intelligence?  How would someone from an outside culture score on an American IQ test?  How is it inherited?  (Polygenics)  IQ Lab

There is a highly controversial book called The Bell Curve that argues that the difference in IQ scores between Americans of African, Asian and European descent is unchangeable because it's determined by genetic factors.
Problems with The Bell Curve:

1. It's information violates statistical rules
2. The authors don't use contradictory studies
3. Use flawed studies that support their theories
4. Reasoning = Genes are inherited independently of one another, so genes for intelligence are not inherited w/genes for skin color.
5. Culture shapes the environment.

Extra Credit:  Research The Bell Curve and the surrounding controversy.   Write a one-page essay describing the controversy.  Cite your sources.

Questions to answer for classwork:

1.  Humans are challenged to find ways to embrace and comprehend the range of biological diversity without succumbing to oversimplification, discrimination, and even bloodshed fueled by superficial differences.  How do anthropological approaches to race contribute to meeting this challenge?

2.  From an evolutionary perspective, why is human biological diversity a key component of our collective identity as a species?

3.  How do you define the concept of intelligence?  Do you think scientists will ever be able to discover the genetic basis of intelligence?

Challenging Racial Hierarcies

Anthropology, the Human Challenge: Text

By the early 20th century, some scholars began to challenge false racial hierarchies based on pseudoscientific notions of IQ or head size or skin color.  

Franz Boas (1858-1942) - Father of Modern Anthropology
Ashley Montagu (1905-1999) - student of Boas wrote Man's Most Dangerous Myth:  The Fallacy of Race

Race As Biology - ?

Race - defined as a subspecies or a population of a species differing geographically, morphologically or genetically.

But... There are at least THREE FLAWS to defining race with biology.

1. Arbitrary - How many differences does it take to make a race?  Skin color /= Blood groups
2. No Race has solitary possession of any gene or genes - Frequencies can be different, but the alleles are present everywhere.  The barriers are only cultural.
3. Differences w/in "racial populations" are wider than between populations

There is a COMBINING OF BIOLOGICAL INTO THE CULTURAL CATEGORY OF RACE

While the biological race category is not applicable to human variation, cultures most certainly use the idea of race to categorize people.  They just confuse the two and in doing so, infuse a false sense of scientific correctness into their categories to make them seem more scientific and objective.

Latin Americans classify into the following categories, but the criteria used is apparently what they wear, the language they speak, and where they live and even what kind of shoes they wear!

• Indio (Indian)
• Mestizo (Mixed)
• Ladino (Spanish)

The US. Census Bureau classifies

• White
• Black
• American Indian
• Alaskan
• Asian
• Pacific Islander
• Hawaiian
• Hipanic

But what race are you after you marry?  What race are your children?  Self-categorization.

These racial designations have been and are still being used to classify and then exclude because of "lesser" status.

• Colonial America
• Haiti - still
• Nazi Germany
• Genocide in Rwanda (800,000 Tutsis in 100 days) (show picture in book)

The SOCIAL SIGNIFICANCE OF RACE

Racism is a doctrine of superiority  by which one group justifies the dehumanization of others based on their distinctive physical characteristics.

• Is a problem because it is about discriminatory ideas, values and attitudes - interpersonal and social, not scientific.
• Political problem used to mobilize support, demonize opponents and eliminate rivals.

 BEHAVIOR

Read the biography of Franz Boas and comment on the ways in which he contested the established notions of race in a 2 paragraph essay in your notebooks or on your computers.  Alternatively, you may present your assessment to me in person after class.

Here is another article about Boas head shape studies and the controversy that currently surrounds them.  For extra credit, please write an essay describing the problem Sparks and Jantz have uncovered with Boas' measurements and the theories they have posited. 


Franz Boas.  (2011).  Biography.com.  Retrieved 03:18, Oct 15, 2011 from http://biography.com/people/franz-boas-9216786

Fergus, Charles.  (2003).  Boas, Bones, and Race.  Penn State Online Research.  Retrieved Oct 18, 2011 from http://www.rps.psu.edu/0305/boas.html

Models of Classification

So how do we stereotypically classify people into racial groups?

Try sorting people on this website.

TYPOLOGICAL MODEL
In the 19th and 20th century, Anthropologists and biologists divided all people into distinct geographical groups based on observable traits.

Linnaeus (18th c) - Four Biological Races
Homo Sapiens Europus albescens - ("white" Europeans)
Homo Sapiens Africanus negreus - ("black" Africans)
Homo Sapiens Asiaticus fucus - ("dark" from Asia)
Homo Sapiens Americanus rubescens - ("red" from Americas)

Johann Blumenbach - compared the skulls of the different "races" and determined that the most symmetric and circular skull was of a woman from the Caucasus mountains, and therefore, was at the origin of species as God would have created the most perfect person with these characteristics.  He named this race "Caucasian" and assigned names to the other "races" ; 
Mongolian - the presumed "race" consisting of Asians and other closely related peoples.
Negroid - the presumed "race" consisting of Sub-Saharan Africans.  This was derived from the Latin word for the color black.
These "races" were classified as becoming more and more inferior, the further you looked from Caucasus.


While race is an important (and dangerous) social category in many societies, it is not applicable to people because the division of humans into discrete types does not represent the true nature of biological variation.

Example of Ota Benga as a rationalization for curiosity and mockery.
Watch the Race Timeline Movie.





There are problems with the typological model.

TRAITS?
Can we unambiguously assign a person to a "race" on the basis of skin color, nose shape, body form, blood type?  If we do, the categories would shift.
CONTINUITY?
And then if we do this, is there a continuum?  Are all people either slender, medium or fat?
ALLELES ARE PRESENT EVERYWHERE
No one race has posession of any specific genes, although the frequencies may be different.  The only barrier is cultural.
GENETIC AND ANATOMICALLY ALIKE?
The largest differences in nose width are found among the different people of Africa.

The more traits you add to the classification, the more sub- races you end up with and some people end up excluded altogether.

So what's a better model?  Is it the next example?

The POPULATIONAL MODEL was developed in the 1940's
This states that the only significant groups, evolutionarily, are distinct breeding populations that would be expected to share genetically inherited traits and have a similar appearance.

So to distinguish...  Typological model looks for defined traits to see who around the world has them, while the Populational model looks for breeding populations first and then determines anatomical and physiological traits that distinguish them.  The populational model makes sense in theory, but who can find the problem?  Barriers have broken down at an accelerated rate... there's only a few isolated areas left to type.

CLINAL MODEL - 1960's
People end up marrying within their geographic regions - despite advanced transportation.  See tutorial for more info.
But sometimes there are isolated pockets that are discontinuous from clines.




Review
Watch movie

Typological Model

• A model or system for classifying people based on the false assumption that humans can be unambiguously placed into "races" on the basis of selected traits such as skin color, hair form, and body shape.  Advocates believe there are distinct populations from different geographic locations.  This model is the basis for our "folk categories" of race used around the world.

Problems:
You can't lump people together based on traits, because traits are continuous.  (skinny, medium, fat)
85% of genetic variation exists within "races" and 15% of variation between the races.
The number of races depends upon the number of traits you choose

Populational Model

• A model or system for classifying people based on the assumption that the only biologically distinct groups are long isolated breeding populations whose evolutionary paths have separated from other populations.

Problems:
No one is isolated for long
It's only useful for studying the few isolated breeding populations that still exist
Good in theory, but not in the larger reality.

Clinal Model

• A model for classifying people based on the fact that genetically inherited traits often gradually change in frequency from one geographic region to another --- so they change progressively from one region to another.

Problems:
This system is the closest to an accepted model for classifying people.
Use the example of blood types
Tied to the reality of the fact that we are most likely to mate with someone within our own geographic locality.
Undermined by the reality of discontinuous pockets of isolated communities with a high (different) frequency of traits differing from their surroundings.  (Red hair in England, Type B isolated areas in southern Asia)

Modern Human Variation

With the exception of identical twins, all of us are genetically different.  BUT, we clearly have traits in common with others.

• Maleness, Femaleness
• Similar origin in world, similar skin and facial features, body shape, stature
• Similar genetic components
• Environmental influences
• Nutritional influences

Color Terms activity.
Humans like to classify based on race and can make the terminology sound scientific, but they are labels used for categorizing and discrimination.  Clearly distinct biological races do not exist but that doesn't preclude the fact that our species is lacking anatomical and physiological variation.


Non-african peoples can have dark brown skin - Papua New Guinea - North of Australia
This is due to natural selection rather than shared descent.

CLINAL Distributions - are progressive, continuous gradations from one geographic region to another.  Yellow brown hair among Australian aborigines shows a progressive gradation from one end of the continent to the other.  This is due to selective pressures and mate selection.

DISCONTINUOUS Distributions - are non-continuous pockets of differences due to migration, genetic drift, gene flow, and closed breeding populations.

For more information and pics, see

O'Neil, D.  (2011).  Models of Classification: Anthropology Tutorials [website].  Retrieved from http://anthro.palomar.edu/tutorials/biological.htm

American Anthropological Society. (2011)  History:  The Story of Race.  Retrieved from http://www.understandingrace.org/history/timeline_movie.html October 16, 2011.

Origin of Species

First, I'd like to summarize the main processes of evolution as they are understood today.

Evolution can result from any of four main processes operating independently or together.  Also there are the two ancillary processes that contribute to evolution.

Main Processes

1. Mutation (creates variety)
2. Genetic drift (small populations and reproductive isolation)
3. Natural selection (rapid and dramatic)
4. Gene flow (introduction of new alleles)

Ancillary Processes

1. Recombination
2. Non-random mating

Jake asked about the future of human intervention in the evolution of humanity.  Here's a lecture by Harvey Fineberg that elaborates on the concept... and produces more questions than answers!

"Mutation is the ultimate source of new genetic varieties.  However, gene flow can be responsible for  the introduction of new alleles into a population.  The most rapid and dramatic evolution is due to natural selection.  Recombination and non-random mating can change the frequencies of genotypes which in turn can be selected for or against by nature (or mates!).  Genetic drift can also result in rapid evolution of the gene pools of small, reproductively isolated populations." (O'Neil, 2011)

ORIGIN OF SPECIES

Evolution can occur in two ways, adaptive radiation and successive speciation.


Adaptive radiation is the successive evolution of two species from one over time, mostly because of geographic isolation.  One species can turn into two over long periods of time, because groups will adapt to different environments.  Mutations, genetic drift and natural selection due to environmental pressures will occur and change each group to such an extent that they are eventually not able to reproduce with each other.  At this point, they become separate species and will continue to evolve independently.  We saw this with the salamanders in California.  This split is called cladogenesis.

Successive Speciation occurs within a single evolutionary line without the branching of adaptive radiation.  Single breeding population for many generations... the gene pool will transform.  If descendents could go back in time to mate with ancestors, their offspring would not be viable.  This non-branching evolutionary pattern is called anagenesis.

 Both of these processes can happen simultaneously... or apart.

As we end our discussion of evolution, there are two links I will give you.  One describes how scientists have been able to take the molecular components of DNA and create conditions that allow these components to assemble naturally.   Revealing the origins of life.

I would also encourage you to read up on The Scope's Monkey Trial.
All Things Considered: Remembering the Scopes Monkey Trial
Darrow's examination of William Jennings Bryan

If you wish to have extra credit to bring up your grade, please write a paper discussing the Scope's Monkey Trial, why it was important during the 1920's and how the situation mirrors the current prevalence of belief in creationism.






Source:  O'Neil, D.  (2011).  Anthropology Tutorials [website].  Modern Theories of Evolution: Non random Mating.  Retrieved from http://anthro.palomar.edu/tutorials/biological.htm

TEST 1 - Review

Anthropology Review for Test 1       

Terms to know

Anthropology

Archaeology

Paleoanthropology

Ethnology

Ethnography

Human evolution

Primatology

Human variation

Allele

Chromosome

Dominant trait

Gene

Genetics

Genotype

Heterozygous

Homozygous

Phenotype

Recessive trait

Human universalism

Culture

Human adaptation

Integration

Fossils

How Old??

Universe  13.7 billion years ago (ya)

Earth          4.5 billion ya

Life           3.8 billion ya

1^st Mammals  220 mill ya

Primates          65 mill ya

First human ancestor  4.5 mill ya

Modern human  100,000 ya   

 Fields of Anthropology

Biological – Biology, genetics, Evolution, Variation

Primatology- Study of Primates

Paleoanthropology - Study of fossil hominids

Cultural Anthropology - study of human cultures

Linguistic Anthropology - study of human language and languages

Archaeology classical, historical, prehistoric, underwater, zooarchaeology

Applied - military, corporate, forensics

Methods in Anthropology

What skills, tools, methods, and questions will you use in studying humans?

What problems (biological or cultural) will you encounter in your study of another culture ?

Evolution

The differences between Lamarck and Darwin’s theories.

The Great Chain of Being

Early Theories of Evolution

Proof of Evolution

1. The fossil record
2. Chemical and anatomical similarities
3. Geographic distribution
4. Recorded genetic changes

Mendel’s Genetics

Punnett Squares

Allele frequency lab

Exceptions to Mendel’s Genetics

Polygenic traits

Intermediate expression

Codominance

Multiple allele series

Sex related effects

Environment

Main Processes of Evolution

1. Mutation (new varieties)
2. Genetic drift (small isolated)
3. Natural selection (dramatic)
4. Gene flow (new alleles into population)

Ancillary Processes of Evolution

1. Recombination
2. Non-random mating

Origin of Species

1. Adaptive Radiation
2. Cladogenesis
3. Successive speciation

Movie to Watch - October 6th and October 10th

Anthropology Assignment for Monday

Watch What Darwin Never Knew on PBS video online.  Start about 40 minutes into the film.  You won’t be able to watch the whole thing, although it’s very interesting.

Here’s the link       http://video.pbs.org/video/1372073556

Please answer these questions as you watch.  Give yourselves the last ten minutes of class to answer them.

Describe an example of modern genetic discovery that "Darwin never knew". 

Describe the problem or mystery that needs explanation.

Tell about the method used to solve the mystery.

Describe the solution. 

What do scientists call this discovered evolutionary process? 

Why did you choose this example and how does it add to your understanding of evolution? 

You may hand-write, type or verbally report your answers to me after class on Monday.  You may use class time on Monday...in other words it's In-class work.

Please have this ready for me on Tuesday or e-mail to hilary@deckhouseschool.org.

Modern Theories of Evolution

The Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium Model

According to the modern definition, evolution is a change in frequencies of the alleles in the gene pool of a population.  Remember the bunny lab?  It used to be thought that dominant alleles would swamp out recessive alleles.  But Hardy and Weinberg came up with an algebraic equation that describes the frequency of alleles in a population ( p² + 2pq + q² = 1) and demonstrates that the frequency of these alleles will remain constant from one generation to the next, provided that certain conditions are met.

1. Mutation is not occurring
2. Natural selection is not occurring
3. Mating must be entirely random
4. The population must be sufficiently large to be statistically relevant
5. No new variants can be introduced into the gene pool or leave
6. All individuals are equally successful at surviving and reproducing

 These conditions can never all be met, so evolution will inevitably occur.  The equation made it possible to predict the allele frequencies in entire populations at a point in time, not just individuals.  (Punnett Squares).  It also allows scientists to see how populations are evolving by comparing one generation to the next algebraically.

The Mechanisms that Can Cause Evolution to Occur (4 Main Processes, 2 Ancillary)

• MUTATION

Mutations are chance alterations of genetic material that produce new variation.  They occur during DNA duplication in cell division and fall into four categories.

1.	DNA base substitution, insertion, and deletion
2.	unequal crossing-over and related structural modifications of chromosomes
3.	partial or complete gene inversion and duplication
4.	irregular numbers of chromosomes

In order for a mutation to be subject to natural selection, it must be expressed in the phenotype.  Natural selection favors adaptively advantageous expressions and even when mutations are recessive, they can add to the genetic load of a population as a hidden variability that may show up in later generations.  Mistakes have made evolution possible.

• NATURAL SELECTION

Darwin had trouble with the concept of ever growing populations.  He knew that organisms produced more offspring than were needed to keep the population steady, but he couldn't at first understand why if that were the case, why we weren't up to our armpits in flies.  Do you? He decided that natural selection was the answer... that the environment selected the best adapted specimens.  We now know that the environment selects the individuals with the best suited genotypes to survive.  (Remember though, that selection operates on an individual's phenotype).  For evolution to happen, natural selection must occur for or against one or more of an individual's allele pairs.

Examples:

Selection against one homozygote results in a lower frequency of that homozygote and a higher frequency of the other resulting homozygote.  Remember the bunny lab and that the recessive allele never disappeared totally.  Another example of selection against a recessive allele is juvenile diabetes, which can now be treated, so the frequency of the allele is not decreasing.  The most striking example of this selection is the homozygous inheritence of the recessive gene CCR5- delta 32 which in its recessive form, gives the individual immunity to the AIDS virus.  See movie clip.

An example of selection against both homozygotes is the case of sickle cell anemia and heterozygous resistance to malaria.  See movie clip.

There are other examples, but what do you think happens when natural selection selects against all genotypes?

Here are some ethical considerations.  Modern Humans have been able to alter the natural pressures for or against genes with medical intervention and counseling.  They have also altered the environment with mutagenic chemicals and radiation.

• Diabetes used to be fatal
• Retinoblastoma (childhood cancer of the eye) was also a dominant trait that caused early childhood death 100% of the time.  Now it's treatable.

What do you think of this turn of events?

We are increasing our genetic load of harmful genes in our populations.

• SMALL POPULATION SIZE EFFECTS

Genetic Drift

In small, reproductively isolated populations, special circumstances can be at work aside from mutation and natural selection.  These evolutionary changes can be due to chance.  For example, when we flip a coin 10 times, the chance that it will be exactly 5 heads and 5 tails is small, but as the number of tosses increases, the chance that the heads and tails will be 50%/50% increases.

With a heterozygous cross, the expected probability is 25% AA, 50% Aa, and 25% aa. (Make a punnett)  But if there's even a chance deviation from the expected, for example, if none of the offspring have a homozygous recessive, the odds change to 33.3 AA and 66.7% Aa.  This chance deviation is the norm... no one gets the expected probable offspring, but with a large enough population, things even out.  But if the group of humans is a closed breeding group, like the Amish, isolated from other gene pools, then genetic anomalies can take precedence.

Founder Principle

This anomaly occurs when a small amount of people have many descendents surviving after many generations.  There are then high frequencies of specific genetic traits inherited from a few common ancestors.

• ex.  There was a woman in the remote Lake Maracaibo region of Venezuela named Maria Conception Soto who had a rare degenerative nerve disorder called Huntington's disease in the early 1800's.  Because the disease does not show up until after the child-bearing years, she was able to have many children before she died.  Because of her many descendents, this region in Venezuela has a very high rate of Huntington's disease, much higher than the rest of the world.
• ex.  The Old Order Amish have a high rate of microcephaly because of a single Amish couple who migrated to America nine generations ago.  In the last 40 years, 61 babies with microcephaly were born to 23 Amish families.

Bottleneck Effect
Dramatic natural selection in catastrophic periods where most individuals died, but then the few that were left were reproductively successful but created a population that is very reduced in genetic diversity.  The bottleneck is usually caused by a natural catastrophe such as an epidemic, storm, earthquake or volcanic eruption..  Sometimes there can be a combination bottleneck and founder effect if in the wake of the natural disaster, a surviving individual is carrying a genetically inherited trait or disorder. 

• GENE FLOW

1.  This can occur with migration.  For example, if all redheads left Scotland, the next generation would have dramatically reduced frequency of red hair.

2.  Can occur without migration.  For example, during the Vietnam War, many men had children with Vietnamese women and significantly changed the gene pool in that country

• RECOMBINATION

During meiosis, when the chromosomes break apart to form the sex cells, there is sometimes a crossing over at the ends of homologous before recombination in the zygote.  If this occurs, it creates a new sequence of alleles to be selected for or against.  It in itself is not evolution, but provides greater diversity.

• NON-RANDOM MATING

In all human populations, mating is not random.  Nor is it in the animal population, or for that matter in the farming population.  Humans and animals look for specific traits in a mate, for humans these selections are based on social mores and rules... ie. culture.  In other words, mate selection is a powerful force of evolution, not unlike natural selection.

Tale of the Peacock PBS Evolution Library video

When farmers use breeding practices

Sources :  O'Neal, Dennis.  (2011).  Physical Anthropology Tutorials.  Retrieved from http://anthro.palomar.edu/tutorials/biological.htm.

Please see the Anthropology Tutorials to clear up any questions or to take the practice quiz.

Exceptions to Simple Inheritance

The simple rules of Mendelian genetics do not always apply.  There are exceptions to every rule in life.

Here are some examples:

1.  Polygenic Traits - Poly = many and genic = genes
Traits are determined by the combined effect of more than one pair of genes.  These result in continuous traits such as tallness in humans.  Human stature is the combined size of all of the body parts from head to foot.  Each of these body part sizes is determined by numerous genes.  (Remember the video about homeobox genes)  Human skin, hair and eye color are also influenced by more than one allele at different loci... (spots on the chromosome).

2.  Intermediate Expression also known as Partial or Incomplete Dominance - This is defined as blending in the phenotype of a heterozygous trait.  Flowers can exhibit pink because the dominant allele is not completely dominant and can't produce enough red pigment to make dark red.  The pitch of male voices is also apparently determined by an allele - homozygous AA and aa are the lowest (bass) and highest (tenor) pitches and Aa are intermediate range baritones.

3.  Codominance - For some traits, two alleles can be codominant.  An example is AB blood type.  When tested, these people have the characteristics of both type A and type B blood - it's not a mix.  Another example is sickle cell anemia.

To answer Jake's question, see Genetic Dominance: Genotype-Phenotype Relationships , by Ilona Miko, Phd, 2008.

4.  Multiple Allele Series - ABO blood type series is an example of three alleles (there are three allelic possibilities, A,B and O) but each individual only inherits 2 of them, one from each parent.
Type A - Anti B antibodies - can only receive Type O or A
Type B - Anti A antibodies - can only receive Type O or B
Type AB - Anti A and B antigens - universal receivers but can't be donors
Type O - no Anti ABO antigens - universal donors but can only receive Type O

5.  Modifying Genes - Alter how other genes are expressed in the phenotype.  For example, there is a dominant cataract gene that is expressed if the companion allele for the modifying gene is present.  (Cataracts can also be affected by diabetes or other environmental factors)

Homework:  Genetic definition page

6.  Regulator genes can either block or initiate the expression of other genes.  They are like switches that turn on the production of proteins or a sequence of developmental in our bodies.  They also control the aging process.  Foxo gene movie.

7.  Sex related Genetic effects -
Sex limited Genes are inherited by both sexes, but only expressed by one sex.  An example is facial hair.

8.  Environment - Environment can play a role in an individual's phenotypic expression.  Poor nutrition in the mother during pregnancy, accidents, and hormone levels can all contribute to altering an individual's phenotype.

There are other examples, but they are not necessary to understand the point --- Which is????

Although researchers have found at least 18,000 human traits that follow basic Mendelian rules, there are at least 5000 genetically inherited diseases and abnormalities that don't follow the rules.  More exceptions to the rule leads to more diversity.

Homework :  Read The Social Impact of Genetics on Reproduction handout and answer the two questions at the end of the article.  We'll discuss your answers when you're finished.

Sources:  

Miko, I. (2008) Genetic dominance: genotype-phenotype relationships. Nature Education 1(1)

O'Neil, D.  (2011).  Anthropology Tutorials [website].  Retrieved from http://anthro.palomar.edu/tutorials/biological.htm

Darwin

Today, we will discuss Darwin and Evidence of Evolution

Carl Sagan

Pre-Darwinian Theories of the Modern World

Today, we'll explore the evolution of Evolution Theory!  There were a number of scientists leading up to the time of Charles Darwin that contributed to the development of the scientific method and evolutionary theory.  

James Ussher
Carolus Linnaeus
John Ray
Comte de Buffon
Erasmus Darwin
George Cuvier
Charles Lyell
James Hutton

As we discuss each scientist, we'll discuss their contributions using these questions as a guide.

1. In what time period did your scientist live?
2. What branch of science did your figure study?
3. What was this person's primary contribution to scientific study?
4. How did his theories affect the development of evolutionary theory?
5. What was the importance of The Great Chain of Being?
6. How did it differ from Linnaeus' System of Classification?

Read and fill out the worksheet on Lamarck's view of evolution.

Evolution

Objectives

• To define evolution
• To contrast the theories of Lamarck and Darwin
• To explore how evolution works within nature

Although some support the theory of creationism, physical anthropology rests on the principles of evolution.  This section of the course does not seek to change anyone's theological viewpoints.  A better understanding of evolution will support your understanding of the way that Anthropologists work and how they have determined the history of the human being.  We can discuss this further in class if there are differences in opinion, but it must be a respectful discussion as everyone is entitled to their own beliefs.  Remember that we are studying the larger view of the human species and not the micro view of the individual.

Please look at Dennis O'Leary's tutorial on evolution and watch the shorter clips today. 

Today we will discuss the conflicting theories presented by Lamarck and Darwin, the problems presented by Lamarck and look at examples of how natural selection operates in the natural world.



                                            

How did Giraffes become long-necked?

Read the Handout about Lamarck and answer the questions in groups of two or three.

Read the Handout about Darwin and answer the questions in groups of two or three.

Finally, take a stab at describing how each animal evolved according to Darwinian theory on the last Handout.


For extra credit, please read the following links about the Scopes Monkey Trial of 1925 and briefly present a summary of the case and why it was important, either in writing, presentation to the class or privately to me!

The Scopes Monkey Trial
NPR's remembering the Scopes Monkey Trial
Darrow's examination of Bryan